Diabetes is generally acknowledged as an emerging disease that affects nearly every population, age, and economy on the globe. The rising incidence of type I and II diabetes mellitus has drawn focus to children and adolescents. The aim of this study was to illustrate the risk factors, incidence, and complications of both forms of diabetes in children in the KSA, as well as to equate Saudi findings to international findings. A systematic review was conducted using EBSCO, Google Scholar, and PubMed to examine randomized clinical trials, retrospective investigations, and experimental studies on diabetes in Saudi Arabian adolescents and children.
Recent research has shown that the prevalence of T1DM and T2DM in children and adolescents is increasing. This tragedy should be given further consideration, as risk factors must be managed. Health programs and seminars can be used to educate mothers and parents of children and teenagers who are at risk of having diabetes mellitus.
1. Op de Beeck A, Eizirik DL. Viral infections in type 1 diabetes mellitus--why the β cells? Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2016;12(5):263-73. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2016.30
2. Chen Y, Wang T, Liu X, Shankar RR. Prevalence of type 1 and type 2 diabetes among US pediatric population in the MarketScan Multi-State Database, 2002 to 2016. Pediatr Diabetes. 2019;20(5):523-9.
3. Yahiya SM, Fadl MA, Abdelghani S, Bashier L, Eltayeb HA. Liaison Between Methylene Tetra Hydro Folate Reductase (Mthfr) Enzyme Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (C667t)(Rs180113) And Diabetic Septic Foot. Pharmacophore. 2020;11(5):26-31.
4. Ahmed IA, Alosaimi ME, Alkhathami SM, Alkhurayb NT, Alrasheed MS, Alanazi ZM, et al. Knowledge, attitude, and practices towards diabetes mellitus among non-diabetes community members of Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Int J Pharm Res Allied Sci. 2020;9(1):41-51.
5. Jensen ET, Dabelea D. Type 2 Diabetes in Youth: New Lessons from the SEARCH Study. Curr Diab Rep. 2018;18(6):36.
6. Temneanu OR, Trandafir LM, Purcarea MR. Type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents: a relatively new clinical problem within pediatric practice. J Med Life. 2016;9(3):235-9.
7. Janghorbani M, Soltanian N, Sirous M, Amini M, Iraj B. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2016;10(1 Suppl 1):S71-8.
8. Tanrikulu MA, Agirbasli M, Berenson G. Primordial Prevention of Cardiometabolic Risk in Childhood. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2017;956:489-96.
9. Marín-Peñalver JJ, Martín-Timón I, Sevillano-Collantes C, Del Cañizo-Gómez FJ. Update on the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. World J Diabetes. 2016;7(17):354-95. doi:10.4239/wjd.v7.i17.354
10. Geloneck MM, Forbes BJ, Shaffer J, Ying GS, Binenbaum G. Ocular Complications in Children with Diabetes Mellitus. Ophthalmology. 2015;122(12):2457-64. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2015.07.010
11. Bloomgarden Z. Beyond HbA1c. J Diabetes. 2017;9(12):1052-3. doi:10.1111/1753-0407.12590
12. Al-Hakami AM. Pattern of thyroid, celiac, and anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide autoantibodies coexistence with type 1 diabetes mellitus in patients from Southwestern Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J. 2016;37(4):386-91. doi:10.15537/smj.2016.4.135
13. Al-Rubeaan K. National surveillance for type 1, type 2 diabetes and rediabetes among children and adolescents: a population-based study (SAUDI-DM). J Epidemiol Community Health. 2015;69(11):1045-51.
14. Alaqeel AA. Pediatric diabetes in Saudi Arabia: Challenges and potential solutions. A review article. Int J Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2019;6(4):125-30. doi:10.1016/j.ijpam.2019.05.008
15. Robert AA, Al-Dawish A, Mujammami M, Dawish MA. Type 1 diabetes mellitus in Saudi Arabia: a soaring epidemic. Int J Pediatr. 2018;2018. doi:10.1155/2018/9408370
16. Ghandoora MM, Almutairi HA, Alsharef HA, Habis HM, Mugharbal EO, Albogami AM. Type 1 diabetes mellitus among pediatrics and adolescents in Saudi Arabia: a systematic review. Int J Adv Res. 2017;5(2):1352-8.
17. Al-Mendalawi MD, Al-Herbish A. Prevalence of type 1 diabetes mellitus in Saudi Arabian children and adolescents. Saudi Med J. 2009;30(2):310-1.
18. Alghamdi AH, Nasaif MN, Dammas AS, Alghamdi JM, Alghamdi RA. Trends of diabetes in children and adolescents in pediatric endocrinology clinic and clinical pediatric diabetes center at Al Baha central hospital in Saudi Arabia. J Prev Med Care. 2016;1(3):09.
19. AlBuhairan F, Nasim M, Al Otaibi A, Shaheen NA, Al Jaser S, Al Alwan I. Health related quality of life and family impact of type 1 diabetes among adolescents in Saudi Arabia. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2016;114:173-9. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2016.01.001
20. Alanazi KF, Alanazi NS, Alanazi MS, Alrwaili AA, Alruwaili BA, ALanazi AA, et al. Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus among Adolescent Girls in Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia. Egypt J Hosp Med. 2018;70(3):458-63.
21. Chiang JL, Maahs DM, Garvey KC, Hood KK, Laffel LM, Weinzimer SA, et al. Type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents: a position statement by the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2018;41(9):2026-44. doi:10.2337/dci18-0023
22. Nadeau KJ, Anderson BJ, Berg EG, Chiang JL, Chou H, Copeland KC, et al. Youth-onset type 2 diabetes consensus report: current status, challenges, and priorities. Diabetes Care. 2016;39(9):1635-42.
23. International Diabetes Federation. 8th. Brussels, Belgium: International Diabetes Federation; 2017. Available from: http://www.diabetesatlas.org.
24. Robert AA, Al-Dawish A, Mujammami M, Dawish MA. Type 1 diabetes mellitus in Saudi Arabia: a soaring epidemic. Int J Pediatr. 2018;2018. doi:10.1155/2018/9408370
25. Narres M, Claessen H, Droste S, Kvitkina T, Koch M, Kuss O, et al. The incidence of end-stage renal disease in the diabetic (compared to the non-diabetic) population: a systematic review. PloS one. 2016;11(1):e0147329.
26. International Diabetes Federation. 8th. Brussels, Belgium: International Diabetes Federation; 2017. Available from: http://www.diabetesatlas.org.
27. Association American Diabetes Introduction: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2018. Diabetes Care. 2018;41(Suppl. 1):S1-S2.
28. Abduljabbar MA, Aljubeh JM, Amalraj A, Cherian MP. Incidence trends of childhood type 1 diabetes in eastern Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J. 2010;31(4):413-8.
29. Habeb AM, Al‐Magamsi MS, Halabi S, Eid IM, Shalaby S, Bakoush O. High incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes in Al‐Madinah, North West Saudi Arabia (2004–2009). Pediatr Diabetes. 2011;12(8):676-81. doi:10.1111/j.1399-5448.2011.00765.x
30. Braham R, Robert AA, Mujammami M, Ahmad RA, Zitouni M, Sobki SH, et al. Double diabetes in Saudi Arabia: A new entity or an underestimated condition. World J Diabetes. 2016;7(20):621-6. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5155236/
31. Shepherd M, Shields B, Hammersley S, Hudson M, McDonald TJ, Colclough K, et al. Systematic population screening, using biomarkers and genetic testing, identifies 2.5% of the UK pediatric diabetes population with monogenic diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2016;39(11):1879-88.
32. Wadwa RP, Chase HP, Raghinaru D, Buckingham BA, Hramiak I, Maahs DM, et al. Ketone production in children with type 1 diabetes, ages 4–14 years, with and without nocturnal insulin pump suspension. Pediatr Diabetes. 2017;18(6):422-7.
33. Mehboob B, Safdar NF, Zaheer S. Socio-economic, environmental and demographic determinants of rise in obesity among Pakistani women: A Systematic Review. J Pak Med Assoc. 2016;66(9):1165-72.
34. Gayathri R, Ruchi V, Mohan V. Impact of Nutrition Transition and Resulting Morbidities on Economic and Human Development. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2017;13(5):452-60. doi:10.2174/1573399812666160901095534
35. Nathan DM, Genuth S, Lachin J, Cleary P, Crofford O, Davis M et al. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1993;329(14):977-86.
36. Laffel L. Improved accuracy of continuous glucose monitoring systems in pediatric patients with diabetes mellitus: results from two studies. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2016;18(Suppl. 2):S223-S33.
37. Ahmed AM, Al-Maghamsi M, Al-Harbi AM, Eid IM, Baghdadi HH, Habeb AM. Reduced frequency and severity of ketoacidosis at diagnosis of childhood type 1 diabetes in Northwest Saudi Arabia. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2016;29(3):259-64. doi:10.1515/jpem-2015-0077
38. Shaltout AA, Channanath AM, Thanaraj TA, Omar D, Abdulrasoul M, Zanaty N, et al. Ketoacidosis at first presentation of type 1 diabetes mellitus among children: a study from Kuwait. Sci Rep. 2016;6(1):1-9. doi:10.1038/srep27519.27519
39. Al-Agha AE, Alafif M, Abd-Elhameed IA. Glycemic control, complications, and associated autoimmune diseases in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med. 2015;36(1):26-31.
40. Alshareef MA, Aljabri KS, Bokhari SA, Al Jiffri AM, Abu Elsaoud HM, Akl AF. The prevalence of celiac disease in Saudi patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus: cross sectional study. Int J Diabetes Metab Disord. 2016;1(1):1-4.
41. Meo SA, Alkahlan MA, Al-Mubarak MA, Al-Obayli MS, Melaibary BA, Dous AN, et al. Impact of type 1 diabetes mellitus on academic performance. J Int Med Res. 2013;41(3):855-8.
42. Safi MA. Celiac disease in type 1 diabetes mellitus in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Characterization and meta-analysis. Saudi Med J. 2019;40(7):647-56. doi:10.15537/smj.2019.7.24293
43. Al-Hayek AA, Robert AA, Braham RB, Turki AS, Al-Sabaan FS. Frequency and associated risk factors of recurrent diabetic ketoacidosis among Saudi adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Saudi Med J. 2015;36(2):216-20.
44. Saadah OI, Al-Agha AE, Al Nahdi HM, Bokhary RY, Al-Mughales JA, Al Bokhari SM. Prevalence of celiac disease in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus screened by anti-tissue transglutaminase antibody from Western Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J. 2012;33(5):541-6.
45. Hagopian W, Lee HS, Liu E, Rewers M, She JX, Ziegler AG, et al. Co-occurrence of Type 1 Diabetes and Celiac Disease Autoimmunity. Pediatrics. 2017;140(5):e20171305. doi:10.1542/peds.2017-1305
Copyright © 2024 Archives of Pharmacy Practice. Authors retain copyright of their article if they are accepted for publication.
Developed by Archives of Pharmacy Practice
